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Defibrillation is the definitive treatment for the life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Defibrillation consists of delivering a therapeutic dose of electrical energy to the affected heart with a device called a defibrillator. This depolarizes a critical mass of the heart muscle, terminates the arrhythmia, and allows normal sinus rhythm to be reestablished by the body's natural pacemaker, in the sinoatrial node of the heart.
Defibrillators can be external, transvenous, or implanted, depending on the type of device used or needed. Some external units, known as automated external defibrillators (AEDs), automate the diagnosis of treatable rhythms, meaning that lay responders or bystanders are able to use them successfully with little, or in some cases no training at all.
An infusion pump infuses fluids, medication or nutrients into a patient's circulatory system. It is generally used intravenously, although subcutaneous, arterial and epidural infusions are occasionally used.
Infusion pumps can administer fluids in ways that would be impractically expensive or unreliable if performed manually by nursing staff. For example, they can administer as little as 0.1 mL per hour injections (too small for a drip), injections every minute, injections with repeated boluses requested by the patient, up to maximum number per hour (e.g. in patient-controlled analgesia), or fluids whose volumes vary by the time of day.
Because they can also produce quite high but controlled pressures, they can inject controlled amounts of fluids subcutaneously (beneath the skin), or epidurally (just within the surface of the central nervous system- a very popular local spinal anesthesia for childbirth).
A pulse oximeter is a medical device that indirectly measures the oxygen saturation of a patient's blood (as opposed to measuring oxygen saturation directly through a blood sample) and changes in blood volume in the skin, producing a photoplethysmograph. It is often attached to a medical monitor so staff can see a patient's oxygenation at all times. Most monitors also display the heart rate. Portable, battery-operated pulse oximeters are also available for home blood-oxygen monitoring. The original oximeter was made by Milliken in the 1940s. The precursor to today's modern pulse oximeter was developed in 1972, by Aoyagi at Nihon Kohden using the ratio of red to infrared light absorption of pulsating components at the measuring site. It was commercialized by Biox in 1981. The device did not see wide adoption in the United States until the late 1980s.
This usually refers to a portable suction apparatus used in wards and theatres for aspirating fluids and vomit from the mouth and airways, and from operation sites by sucking the material through a catheter into a bottle. The term could also apply to devices which operate from piped vacuum supplies or bottle gas cylinders but is more commonly used to mean electric suction units which contain a vacuum pump (piston, diaphragm, or rotary vane), bacterial filter, vacuum gauge, trap for moisture (or any debris accidentally drawn into the mechanism), a reservoir for the aspirated material, and a suction catheter or nozzle. They may be intended to provide high or low vacuum, and high and low flow rates. Low vacuum is used for post-operative wound drainage.
The main reservoir is usually a glass bottle with volume marks up the side and sometimes this has a float valve so that the vacuum is cut off before the bottle becomes full enough to allow the contents to be drawn into the pipework of the pumping mechanism. However, frothing of the contents can sometimes defeat the float valve mechanism.
They may sometimes be described as high-grade or low-grade suction machines, which relates to the degree of vacuum achieved. High-grade suction machines are used for rapid aspiration of fluids and debris (such as vomit), whereas low-grade machines are used for post-operative wound drainage
X-ray sources
In the typical X-ray source of less than 450 Kv. X-ray photons are produced by an electron beam striking a target. The electrons that make up the beam are emitted from a heated cathode filament. The electrons are then focused and accelerated towards an angled anode target. The point where the electron beam strikes the target is called the focal spot. Most of the kinetic energy contained in the electron beam is converted to heat, but around 1% of the energy is converted into X-ray photons, the excess heat is dissipated via a heat sink. At the focal spot, X-ray photons are emitted in all directions from the target surface, the highest intensity being around 60deg to 90deg from the beam due to the angle of the anode target to the approaching X-ray photons. There is a small round window in the X-ray tube directly above the angled target. This window allows the X-ray to exit the tube with little attenuation while maintaining a vacuum seal required for the X-ray tube operation.
X-ray machines work by applying controlled voltage and current to the X-ray tube, which results in a beam of X-rays. The beam is projected on matter. Some of the X-ray beam will pass through the object, while some are absorbed. The resulting pattern of the radiation is then ultimately detected by a detection medium including rare earth screens (which surround photographic film), semiconductor detectors, or X-ray image intensifiers.
In healthcare applications in particular, the x-ray detection system rarely consists of the detection medium. For example, a typical stationary radiographic x-ray machine also includes an ion chamber and grid. The ion chamber is basically a hollow plate located between the detection medium and the object being imaged. It determines the level of exposure by measuring the amount of x-rays that have passed through the electrically charged, gas-filled gap inside the plate. This allows for minimization of patient radiation exposure by both ensuring that an image is not underdeveloped to the point the exam needs to be repeated and ensuring that more radiation than needed is not applied. The grid is usually located between the ion chamber and object and consists of many aluminum slats stacked next to each other (resembling a polaroid lens). In this manner, the grid allows straight x-rays to pass through to the detection medium but absorbs reflected x-rays. This improves image quality by preventing scattered (non-diagnostic) x-rays from reaching the detection medium, but using a grid creates higher exam radiation doses overall.
Images taken with such devices are known as X-ray photographs or radiographs. The older term Röentgenogram continues to be used by radiologists.
X-ray technology is used in health care for visualising bone structures and other dense tissues such as tumours. Non-medicial applications include security and material analysis. (Xerographic Radiation)
The body is mainly composed of water molecules which each contain two hydrogen nuclei or protons. When a person goes inside the powerful magnetic field of the scanner these protons align with the direction of the field.
A second radio frequency electromagnetic field is then briefly turned on causing the protons to absorb some of its energy. When this field is turned off the protons release this energy at a radio frequency which can be detected by the scanner. The position of protons in the body can be determined by applying additional magnetic fields during the scan which allows an image of the body to be built up. These are created by turning gradients coils on and off which creates the knocking sounds heard during an MR scan.
Diseased tissue, such as tumors, can be detected because the protons in different tissues return to their equilibrium state at different rates. By changing the parameters on the scanner this effect is used to create contrast between different types of body tissue.
Contrast agents may be injected intravenously to enhance the appearance of blood vessels, tumors or inflammation. Contrast agents may also be directly injected into a joint, in the case of arthrograms, MR images of joints. Unlike CT scanning MRI uses no ionizing radiation and is generally a very safe procedure. Patients with some metal implants, cochlear implants, and cardiac pacemakers are prevented from having an MRI scan due to effects of the strong magnetic field and powerful radio frequency pulses.
MRI is used to image every part of the body, and is particularly useful in neurological conditions, disorders of the muscles and joints, for evaluating tumors and showing abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), is primarily a medical imaging technique most commonly used in radiology to visualize the internal structure and function of the body. MRI provides much greater contrast between the different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncology (cancer) imaging. Unlike CT, it uses no ionizing radiation, but uses a powerful magnetic field to align the nuclear magnetization of (usually) hydrogen atoms in water in the body. Radio frequency (RF) fields are used to systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization, causing the hydrogen nuclei to produce a rotating magnetic field detectable by the scanner. This signal can be manipulated by additional magnetic fields to build up enough information to construct an image of the body
Magnetic resonance imaging is a relatively new technology. The first MR image was published in 1973and the first study performed on a human took place on July 3, 1977.By comparison, the first human X-ray image was taken in 1895.
Magnetic resonance imaging was developed from knowledge gained in the study of nuclear magnetic resonance. In its early years the technique was referred to as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). However, as the word nuclear was associated in the public mind with ionizing radiation exposure it is generally now referred to simply as MRI. Scientists still use the term NMRI when discussing non-medical devices operating on the same principles. The term Magnetic Resonance Tomography (MRT) is also sometimes used. One of the contributors to modern MRI, Paul Lauterbur, originally named the technique zeugmatography, a Greek term meaning "that which is used for joining".The term referred to the interaction between the static, radio frequency, and gradient magnetic fields necessary to create an image, but this term was not adopted
Important Questions about Scope Of BME :
A biomedical engineer is a must in a hospital. No hospital can perform without having a biomedical department, particularly hospitals which are into tertiary and secondary care. We have to look at a biomedical engineer as a resource which is on line with the management resource of an organisation and not as an engineer. Lot of hospitals use biomedical engineer as if he is just a component of engineering services of a hospital. He is a very intelligent resource which looks after the most expensive part of the hospital and so we need to use the resource adequately. He not only takes care of your equipment but forms an integral part of the hospital’s management team. He also needs to constantly keep abreast of the new technologies that are happening. An institution head should look at a biomedical engineer as a guide.
Comment on the changing role of a biomedical engineer in the changing health care scenario.
With health care becoming corporatised the role of biomedical engineer in a corporate hospital has changed dramatically — from just being another resource to becoming driver of medical services within the hospital. These are the people who ultimately help save costs. We may have the best of equipment in the world but it may not be economical to run the equipment. Biomedical engineers should be seen as a part of hospital’s core management team.
Do hospitals understand the need to employ a biomedical engineer?
Unfortunately many hospitals do not. The newer generation hospitals do but many do not. However, this is bound to change. Because, as hospitals become more responsible for upgradation of equipment they will understand the need for biomedical engineer. Hospitals look at every resource as cost and this is the way health care is structured in our country. People do not understand that any medical technology company cannot support you as much as your internal support.
What is the scope for biomedical engineers?
The basic problem for the hospitals is that the number of biomedical engineers is limited. There are not enough courses too. We need more biomedical engineers. Students did not take up this responsibility because they felt that job opportunities are limited. As the health care sector grows and becomes more dynamic, the need for this group is going to be high. Therefore we should start looking at more number of courses to churn our more number of engineers to cater to the need.
What are the challenges ahead of a biomedical engineer?
The biggest challenge is that medical technology is changing so fast that it is very important to keep abreast of this changing technology. When institutions are looking at cost-effective solutions, they need to get more and more sensitised to the fact that it is not just important to have greatest of the technology but to see that what is the end service they give to patients
Ventilator
This is an extremely broad category -- essentially covering all healthcare products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.
A medical device is intended for use in:
- the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or
- in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease
Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants.
Stereolithography is a practical example of medical modeling being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, and early diagnosis of complex diseases.
Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also Regulation):
- Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments and other similar types of common equipment.
- Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include x-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.
- Class III devices generally require premarket approval, a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants
Medical/Biomedical Imaging is a major segment of Medical Devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, other radiology, and other means
Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including:
- Fluoroscopy
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- Nuclear Medicine
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) PET scansPET-CT scans
- Projection Radiography such as X-rays and CT scans
- Tomography
- Ultrasound
- Electron Microscopy
Biomedical Engineering covers recent advances in the growing field of biomedical technology, instrumentation, and administration. Contributions focus on theoretical and practical problems associated with:
- the development of medical technology;
- the introduction of new engineering methods into public health;
- hospitals and patient care;
- the improvement of diagnosis and therapy;
- biomedical information storage and retrieval.
Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, biotechnologies such as regenerative tissue growth, and pharmaceutical drugs & biopharmaceuticals.
Sub disciplines within biomedical engineering
Biomedical engineering is a highly interdisciplinary field, influenced by (and overlapping with) various other engineering and medical fields. This often happens with newer disciplines, as they gradually emerge in their own right after evolving from special applications of extant disciplines. Due to this diversity, it is typical for a biomedical engineer to focus on a particular subfield or group of related subfields. There are many different taxonomic breakdowns within BME, as well as varying views about how best to organize them and manage any internal overlap; the main U.S. organization devoted to BME divides the major specialty areas as follows
- Bioinstrumentation
- Biomaterials
- Biomechanics
- Cellular, Tissue, and Genetic Engineering
- Clinical Engineering
- Medical Imaging
- Orthopaedic Bioengineering
- Rehabilitation Engineering
- Systems Physiology
Sometimes, disciplines within BME are classified by their association(s) with other, more established engineering fields, which can include:
- Chemical engineering - often associated with biochemical, cellular, molecular and tissue engineering, biomaterials, and biotransport.
- Electrical engineering - often associated with bioelectrical and neural engineering, bioinstrumentation, biomedical imaging, and medical devices. This also tends to encompass Optics and Optical engineering - biomedical optics, imaging and related medical devices.
- Mechanical engineering - often associated with biomechanics, biotransport, medical devices, and modeling of biological systems.
::. ALL ABOUT ENGINEERING TECNIQUES .::
FOLLOWING ENGINEERING FIELDS ARE AVAILABLE :
1- BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
2- CIVIL ENGINEERING
3- ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
4- TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
5- COMPUTER ENGINEERING
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